在前不久的时间，“数学天才”姜萍因在阿里达摩院的数学竞赛初试中脱颖而出，取得了第十二名的好成绩。然而，这位数学天才却被人扒出完全和本人天才身份不符的表现，以及她作为一个中专学识在数学竞赛中完全不属于自身天赋而是作弊得来的成就。面对铺天盖地的质疑声，姜萍却选择了沉默而不是证明自己。与此同时，阿里达摩院选择了不公布决赛成绩，承担下巨大的舆论压力将此事遮掩了起来。姜萍事件的来龙去脉以及是真是假，笔者我觉得无需过多赘述。因此我打算写下这篇文章，来着重说说过往数学危机以及与求真古往今来的故事，以及对我们今天的启示。
我们今天所知的现代数学，来源于古希腊的毕达哥拉斯学派，是作为演绎系统的纯粹数学。早在公元前500年，毕达哥拉斯学派认为，数学的知识是可靠的、准确的，而且可以应用于现实的世界。相传，毕达哥拉斯第一次发现了勾股定理——当两条直角边为3和4时，斜边长为5。为此，毕达哥拉斯杀了足足一百头牛庆祝这个定理的发现，而这就是百牛定理。而时间到了公元前400年，毕达哥拉斯学派的希帕索斯发现了：等腰直角三角形的直角边与其斜边不可通约——假如两条直角边為1，斜边的长度无法用整数和分数表示。於是他将其命名為根号二。但是此数无法用有理数来解释，毕达哥拉斯学派由此发生了分歧，也由此引发了历史上的第一次数学危机。最终，毕达哥拉斯学派的其他人把希帕索斯关入了牢笼，并将它扔进了大海中。公元前370年，柏拉图的学生攸多克萨斯解决了关於无理数的问题。他用公理化方法创立了新的比例理论，微妙地处理了有理数和无理数的争论，第一次数学危机就这样被彻底解决了。由此可见，学术是严谨且需要被质疑的过程。正是因为真理可以被质疑和打破，所以学术王国的进步才有了质的基础。哥白尼打破了日心说的真理，所以迎来了天文学的跃进；爱因斯坦打破了牛顿经典力学的限制，所以迎来了量子力学的新时代。反观姜萍面对互联网上的质疑声浪时，却选择充当缩头乌龟，不参与任何的证明声音。玩FPS游戏被质疑作弊尚且有许多人愿意自证清白，作为一个学生乃至涉及学术领域却不肯吐露一字，这是一个学者所应有的操守么？
学术的求真，在古今中外，都是一个非常严谨的话题。早在汉代，司马迁在写史记时，为了考证秦灭魏国的历史过程，亲自前去魏国首都大梁进行实地考察。在中国古代历朝历代，科举考试作弊就是极其严重的行为。在清代，科举考试作弊是死罪，贿赂科举考试的考官更是罪加一等。正是因为学术的钻研需要建立在个人道德和思想的提升之上，所以弟子规有言：泛爱众，而亲仁，行有余力则学文。而在西方，学术的求真更是非常严肃的行为。个人如果在大学学术论文上有抄袭作假等学术不端的行为，是极大概率会被大学开除的。而在我国，这种学术造假不仅是在大学本科阶段就随处可见的，甚至一些发表在权威机构和论坛上的论文都有严重的造假现象。在此之前，就出现了在全市乃至全国级别的科学竞赛中，一个小学六年级学生居然写出如何遏制癌症的生物相关论文，而他的日记中，居然就滑稽可笑的写着“今天通过查百度，知道了什么是基因xxxx”这样无比荒谬的事。而这还不算完，就在前段时间，甚至我国还有一位学者发表了一部关于研究如何让“将煮熟了的熟鸡蛋反生从而孵化出小鸡”的论文。学过基础生物的人都知道，生鸡蛋变为熟鸡蛋，本质是鸡蛋中的蛋白质结构被破坏的结果，而正常做饭中食用的熟鸡蛋是没有受精结合的过程，根本不可能孵化的出小鸡的。因此，毫不夸张的说，我国的学术造假和学术不端现象，已经成为我国学术领域的巨大障碍。而要想打破这个巨大障碍，正是需要一个学术自由的土壤和能够质疑权威 挑战权威的过程。只有这样，才能保障学术的求真，也才能保障我国在学术方面的进步。因此，可以说，姜萍事件也是对我国学术的一个警示——只有在政治自由 表达自由且被舆论和民众充分监督的领域下，才能有学术环境的自由，才不会出现第二个姜萍这样的害群之马，我国才能在科研上能够追上欧美的步伐。

From the first math crisis to the warning of "Chinese math genius" Jiang Ping to the pursuit of truth in academia
Not long ago, "mathematical genius" Jiang Ping stood out in the preliminary test of Alibaba Damo Academy's math competition and achieved a good result of 12th place. However, this math genius was exposed for her performance that was completely inconsistent with her genius identity, and her achievements in the math competition were not her own talents but cheating as a junior college graduate. Faced with overwhelming doubts, Jiang Ping chose to remain silent instead of proving herself. At the same time, Alibaba Damo Academy chose not to announce the final results, and covered up the matter under huge public pressure. I don't think it's necessary to elaborate on the ins and outs of the Jiang Ping incident and whether it is true or false. Therefore, I plan to write this article to focus on the past math crisis and the story of the pursuit of truth from ancient times to the present, as well as its enlightenment to us today.
The modern mathematics we know today originated from the Pythagorean school of ancient Greece, which is pure mathematics as a deductive system. As early as 500 BC, the Pythagorean school believed that mathematical knowledge was reliable, accurate, and could be applied to the real world. According to legend, Pythagoras first discovered the Pythagorean theorem - when the two right-angled sides are 3 and 4, the length of the hypotenuse is 5. For this reason, Pythagoras killed a hundred cows to celebrate the discovery of this theorem, and this is the Hundred Oxen Theorem. In 400 BC, Hippasus of the Pythagorean school discovered that the right angles of an isosceles right triangle are incommensurable with its hypotenuse - if the two right angles are 1, the length of the hypotenuse cannot be expressed by integers and fractions. So he named it the square root of two. However, this number could not be explained by rational numbers, and the Pythagorean school was divided, which also triggered the first mathematical crisis in history. In the end, the rest of the Pythagorean school put Hippasus in a cage and threw him into the sea. In 370 BC, Eudoxus, a student of Plato, solved the problem of irrational numbers. He used axiomatic methods to create a new theory of proportions and subtly dealt with the debate between rational and irrational numbers. The first mathematical crisis was thus completely resolved. It can be seen that academics are rigorous and need to be questioned. It is precisely because the truth can be questioned and broken that the progress of the academic kingdom has a qualitative foundation. Copernicus broke the truth of heliocentrism, so he ushered in a leap forward in astronomy; Einstein broke the limitations of Newton's classical mechanics, so he ushered in a new era of quantum mechanics. In contrast, when Jiang Ping faced the questioning voices on the Internet, she chose to act as a turtle and did not participate in any proof voices. Many people are willing to prove their innocence when they are suspected of cheating in FPS games. As a student, he is unwilling to say a word even in the academic field. Is this the ethics that a scholar should have?
The pursuit of truth in academics is a very rigorous topic in ancient and modern times, both at home and abroad. As early as the Han Dynasty, when Sima Qian was writing the Records of the Grand Historian, in order to verify the historical process of Qin's destruction of Wei, he personally went to Daliang, the capital of Wei, for a field investigation. In ancient China, cheating in the imperial examination was an extremely serious act. In the Qing Dynasty, cheating in the imperial examination was a capital crime, and bribing the examiners of the imperial examination was an even more serious crime. It is precisely because academic research needs to be based on the improvement of personal morality and thought that the "Disciples' Rules" say: Love all people, be close to benevolent, and study literature when you have spare time. In the West, the pursuit of truth in academics is a very serious behavior. If an individual plagiarizes or falsifies academic papers in university academic papers, he or she will most likely be expelled from the university. In my country, this kind of academic fraud is not only common in undergraduate universities, but even some papers published in authoritative institutions and forums have serious fraud. Before this, in a city-level or even national science competition, a sixth-grade elementary school student actually wrote a biological paper on how to curb cancer, and in his diary, he actually wrote ridiculously "Today, I learned what gene xxxx is by searching Baidu." This is an extremely ridiculous thing. And this is not the end. Some time ago, even a scholar in my country published a paper on how to "reverse the cooked eggs to hatch chicks." Anyone who has studied basic biology knows that the transformation of raw eggs into cooked eggs is essentially the result of the destruction of the protein structure in the eggs. The cooked eggs used in normal cooking have not undergone the fertilization process and it is impossible to hatch chicks. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that academic fraud and academic misconduct in my country have become a huge obstacle in my country's academic field. In order to break this huge obstacle, we need a soil of academic freedom and a process that can question and challenge authority. Only in this way can we guarantee the pursuit of truth in academics and the progress of our country in academics. Therefore, it can be said that the Jiang Ping incident is also a warning to my country's academics - only in the field of political freedom, freedom of expression and full supervision by public opinion and the public can there be a free academic environment, and there will not be a second black sheep like Jiang Ping, and my country can catch up with Europe and the United States in scientific research.

自近现代以来，西方人提出了四样影响人类历史发展最为深远的政治学发明。第一个即是主权国家，它诞生于1648年的欧洲三十年战争以及在此之后的威斯特伐利亚和约，他使得国家之间的外交与疆界被基于国际法之形式而受到法律性的认可。第二个即是民族主义，它诞生于拿破仑战争前后，并见证了拿破仑将王冠待在头顶而非教皇之手，成为了法国人自己的皇帝而非其他的欧洲贵族或者君主。他使得国家的民众基于“想象的共同体”而成为一个国族下的集体，并演化为民族国家的阶段。第三个即是共产主义，它诞生于马克思和恩格斯的理论，他将剩余价值理论 资本主义总崩溃 无产阶级专政等指导具象化，并在20世纪达到顶点后已经逐渐式微。第四个即是帝国主义。在本文中，笔者我将来论述新帝国主义是如何成为并最终成为资本主义的顶点，并深刻影响我们的今天以及未来。
在1850年以前，古典资本主义正逐渐趋于成熟。彼时的世界也处在维多利亚时代之后的大变革中，自由贸易与经济上的自由放任尚在大行其道。与此同时，伴随着资本主义发展而越来越迫切的核心矛盾——生产过剩的问题接踵而来。在古典资本主义中，如果一个国家想要实现工业化和资本主义的积累，就必然也只能通过三条道路：殖民扩张 殖民掠夺与工农业剪刀差。在英国，由于对羊毛的需求，大量的贵族和地主霸占了农民的土地来养羊，使得无家可归的破产流浪汉农民进入了工厂中，成为了流水线的一员。这即是著名的圈地运动，也正是通过工农业剪刀差来实现资本的积累。而在美国，大量的殖民者为了探求西部地区的海量财富与矿藏。前往淘金，开始了西进运动。但事物总有曲折之时，随着瓜分非洲逐渐进入尾声与德意志 意大利的统一，日本明治维新的成功，资本主义列强已经无力再通过殖民扩张 殖民掠夺与工农业剪刀差三者再进行资本主义的积累了。于是，古典资本主义开始迎来了他不可避免的矛盾，世界的洗牌也由此开始了。
列宁将帝国主义描述为“资本主义的最终阶段”，并将帝国主义视为资本主义矛盾的必然。于是，帝国主义开始了他在19世纪后半段的辉煌时代，一个个殖民地在帝国的火炮轰鸣中被建成，并将财富源源不断的送来，给殖民地们带来“文明开化的福音”。他成为了世界主要国家的最终道路，使得资本主义以世界霸权的形式建立出大资本联合和国际对抗。最终，在20世纪两次危险的世界大战中，以开辟殖民地和“钢铁与大炮”武力征服式的帝国主义迎来了他的末路，人类也从殖民帝国时代转变为意识形态交锋的新时代。
1848年，马克思发表了影响后世百年的共产党宣言，他大言不惭地说到，哪怕东伦敦最贫苦的工人，一想到大英帝国的辉煌，也会骄傲的挺起胸膛。然而他刻意忽略了一个事实：彼时伦敦的工人薪资水平远高于其他欧洲国家，所以他们挺起胸膛，本就是应该且合理的。在随后的时光中，随着后冷战时代以来反殖民主义的出现与西方工人运动的日益成熟，社会主义和西方马克思主义的巨大发展，合作与平等化取代了斗争。在此过程中，欧洲与日本走向了社会民主主义的道路——通过议会斗争 工会运动与改良社会主义，来达成通向共产主义的最终桥梁。而在美国与英国，里根与撒切尔却选择了新自由主义——这是一种提倡自由资本主义与私有化的模式，并主张政府削除和减少除必要开支和部分公共事业的其他开支。于是，基于全球化的资本主义世界也一直走在繁荣道路上，西方世界的工人与左翼也心安理得的选择了满足现状。
如果说，过去19世纪的旧的帝国主义，是服务于殖民掠夺和资本扩张的选择，那么21世纪的新帝国主义，即是列强国家对弱国的基于政治 经济乃至文化的多重扩张与“再征服”，他将不再是军事和武力性的，而是基于现代资本主义的最终结果。2008年的金融危机，打破了这个寂静。它似乎警醒着人们，安逸永远只能是一时。在东方，中国正在急不可耐的飞速攀升，实现了30年时间GDP增长29.76倍的奇迹。而在美国，作为资本主义世界的顶点，美国的GDP增速却是主要发达国家中最快的。在第四次信息技术革命中，全世界的前二十互联网产业中，十个在美国，另外十个在中国，而欧洲和日本却一个没有；在世界主要高端制造业中，欧洲和日本也在不断丧失着原本的优势。显然，对于欧洲和日本来说，他们享受社会红利的普通劳工和中国的劳工是零和博弈的关系——因为产业的竞争，而造就的国际分工体系的竞争，欧洲的无产阶级显然也不会去和时刻和他们竞争的中国劳工互称无产阶级好兄弟。如果说2016年中国的一带一路，最核心之处是希望通过输出生产过剩的产品和基础建设来对亚洲和非洲穷国的经济殖民，那么中美贸易战更是新帝国主义竞争的开始。在此过程中，中国的根本矛盾已经演变为大资本家与红色贵族之间的矛盾，而这也将是威权资本主义的末路。也许再过数年，我们都将看到第二次冷战的到来，以及一个新帝国主义 自由资本主义 有限民主且保守自由主义的中国与美利坚合众国的新两极世界。
从欧洲难民危机，到日元贬值 法国大革命2.0 AI革命在美国的爆发 特朗普的胜选 欧洲关税抬升 中国在新能源汽车 电子支付 无人驾驶的大幅进步，新帝国主义正以翻天覆地的姿态，冲击着这个世界。在现代资本主义下，由于解决生产过剩方式的多样，生产过剩作为资本主义的核心危机的破坏力正在被逐步地遏止，而传统社会民主主义下的产业升级与进步却反而成为了一种阻力。我们不妨假设一下——在过去，中国的汽车制造业和相关产业技术并不先进，可能占据了世界骑车产业份额的20%，而中国的汽车工人也许是每天996且只有月薪三千RMB的。而到今天，假如因为新能源技术的出现实现了汽车制造的升级，那么它就会占据世界汽车产业份额的40%，而由于中国通过“有形的手”压低了劳工成本，中国劳工也许就会变成月薪四千RMB。尽管这样看，中国的贫富差距客观上被拉大了，中国的资本家获得了更多但工人拿的更少，但是中国的工人由于诉求更小和较低的社会能量，使得中国的资本家能更加“肆无忌惮”的推动新技术乃至运用新技术的扩大再生产，而这放在传统欧洲国家是阻力非常巨大的——因为新技术使用导致成本抬升和大量失业者最终造成工会与罢工者的反对造就游行与利润的降低，最终使得新技术的推行难以为继。两百年前，马克思在资本论描述中国时，他是这样描述的“当未来有一天，欧洲的资本家和贵族们因为无产阶级革命而逃亡时，他们会来到遥远的东方，然后他们抬头时，会惊讶的看到上面赫然写着：中华共和国，平等自由博爱”，在马克思看来，中国显然是未来资本主义世界的顶点。但或许马克思没有想到的是，两百年后的今天，在欧洲的已经实现的社会主义灯塔下，无产阶级和工人农民们正惊恐且害怕的看着一个这样的庞然大物：他的左手拿着华为 比亚迪等红色资本，右手拿着一把巨型左轮，身后是处在无休止工作中的河南农民工 东莞和深圳的流水线工人 上海的外卖员组成的累累白骨，正一步一步地走来，就如同1840年的英国人来到中国那样，要将世界砸碎。
20世纪末的社会主义与共产主义的红色余晖已经日渐黄昏，属于民族主义与新帝国主义的白太阳即将冉冉升起。左翼乃至全世界的泛左正在这场挑战中退场，在这个紧张却又充满变数的21世纪，是无产阶级的胜利，是新帝国主义的时代，亦或是社会主义改良的新道路？我们敬请期待。

Since modern times, Westerners have proposed four political inventions that have had the most profound impact on the development of human history. The first is the sovereign state, which was born in the Thirty Years' War in Europe in 1648 and the subsequent Peace of Westphalia. It made the diplomacy and boundaries between countries legally legal based on the form of international law. recognition. The second is nationalism, which was born before and after the Napoleonic Wars and saw Napoleon put the crown on his head instead of the hands of the Pope, and became the French's own emperor instead of other European nobles or monarchs. He made the people of the country become a collective under the nation based on the "imagined community" and evolved into the stage of a nation-state. The third is communism, which was born from the theories of Marx and Engels. He concretized the guidance of the theory of surplus value, the total collapse of capitalism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat. It has gradually declined since it reached its peak in the 20th century. The fourth is imperialism. In this article, the author will discuss how neo-imperialism became and eventually became the culmination of capitalism, profoundly affecting our present and future.
Before 1850, classical capitalism was gradually maturing. At that time, the world was also undergoing great changes after the Victorian era, and free trade and economic laissez-faire were still prevalent. At the same time, the core contradiction that has become increasingly urgent with the development of capitalism—the problem of overproduction—has emerged one after another. In classical capitalism, if a country wants to achieve industrialization and capitalist accumulation, it must and can only take three paths: colonial expansion, colonial plunder, and industrial and agricultural scissors. In Britain, due to the demand for wool, a large number of nobles and landowners occupied farmers' land to raise sheep, causing homeless and bankrupt tramp farmers to enter factories and become members of the assembly line. This is the famous enclosure movement, and it is through the scissor gap between industry and agriculture that capital accumulation is achieved. In the United States, a large number of colonists sought to explore the vast wealth and mineral deposits in the western region. Go to gold mining and start the westward movement. But things always have twists and turns. With the carving up of Africa gradually coming to an end, the unification of Germany and Italy, and the success of Japan's Meiji Restoration, the capitalist powers are no longer able to carry out capitalist accumulation through colonial expansion, colonial plunder, and industrial and agricultural scissors. . As a result, classical capitalism began to face its inevitable contradictions, and the reshuffle of the world began.
Lenin described imperialism as “the final stage of capitalism” and viewed imperialism as a necessary contradiction of capitalism. Thus, imperialism began its glorious era in the second half of the 19th century. Colonies were built one after another amidst the roar of imperial artillery, and wealth was continuously sent to the colonies, bringing "the gospel of civilization and enlightenment" to the colonies. He became the ultimate path for the world's major countries, allowing capitalism to establish large capital alliances and international confrontation in the form of world hegemony. Finally, during the two dangerous world wars of the 20th century, imperialism, which relied on colonization and "steel and cannon" force conquest, came to an end. Humanity also transitioned from the era of colonial empires to a new era of ideological confrontation.
In 1848, Marx published the Communist Manifesto, which influenced subsequent generations for a hundred years. He boldly said that even the poorest workers in East London would puff up their chests with pride when they think of the glory of the British Empire. However, he deliberately ignored the fact that at that time, the wages of workers in London were much higher than those in other European countries, so it was reasonable and reasonable for them to stand up. In the subsequent years, with the emergence of anti-colonialism since the post-Cold War era and the increasing maturity of the Western labor movement, and the tremendous development of socialism and Western Marxism, cooperation and equalization have replaced struggle. In the process, Europe and Japan took the path of social democracy - through parliamentary struggle, trade union movements and reform socialism, to reach the final bridge to communism. In the United States and the United Kingdom, Reagan and Thatcher chose neoliberalism, a model that advocates liberal capitalism and privatization, and advocates cutting and reducing government expenditures except for necessary expenditures and some public utilities. As a result, the capitalist world based on globalization has been on the road to prosperity, and workers and the left in the Western world have chosen to be content with the status quo.
If the old imperialism of the 19th century was a choice that served colonial plunder and capital expansion, then the new imperialism of the 21st century is the multiple expansion and "renewal" of powerful countries based on political economy and even culture against weak countries. Conquest" will no longer be military and forceful, but will be based on the end result of modern capitalism. The financial crisis of 2008 broke this silence. It seems to remind people that comfort can only be temporary. In the East, China is climbing rapidly, achieving a miracle of GDP growth of 29.76 times in 30 years. In the United States, as the pinnacle of the capitalist world, the GDP growth rate of the United States is the fastest among major developed countries. In the fourth information technology revolution, among the top twenty Internet industries in the world, ten are in the United States and the other ten are in China, but none in Europe and Japan; among the world's major high-end manufacturing industries, Europe and Japan are also It is constantly losing its original advantages. Obviously, for Europe and Japan, the relationship between ordinary workers who enjoy social dividends and Chinese workers is a zero-sum game - because of industrial competition, the competition in the international division of labor system created, the European proletariat obviously will not They call each other proletarian good brothers with the Chinese workers who compete with them all the time. If the core of China’s One Belt, One Road initiative in 2016 is to economically colonize poor countries in Asia and Africa by exporting overproduced products and infrastructure, then the Sino-US trade war is the beginning of a new imperialist competition. In this process, the fundamental contradiction in China has evolved into the contradiction between big capitalists and the red aristocracy, and this will also be the end of authoritarian capitalism. Perhaps in a few years we will all see the advent of the Second Cold War and a new bipolar world of neo-imperialism, liberal capitalism, limited democracy and conservative liberalism, China and the United States of America.
From the European refugee crisis to the depreciation of the Japanese yen, the French Revolution 2.0, the outbreak of the AI ​​revolution in the United States, Trump’s victory, rising European tariffs, and China’s substantial progress in new energy vehicles, electronic payment, and autonomous driving, new imperialism is taking an earth-shaking attitude. Impacting the world. Under modern capitalism, due to the various ways to solve overproduction, the destructive power of overproduction, the core crisis of capitalism, is gradually being contained. However, industrial upgrading and progress under traditional social democracy have become a kind of resistance. We might as well assume that in the past, China's automobile manufacturing and related industries were not technologically advanced and may have accounted for 20% of the world's cycling industry. China's automobile workers may need work 6 days a week and only have a monthly salary of 3,000 RMB. . Today, if automobile manufacturing is upgraded due to the emergence of new energy technology, it will account for 40% of the world's automobile industry. And because China has lowered labor costs through its "visible hand", Chinese workers may It turns into a monthly salary of 4,000 RMB. Although viewed this way, the gap between China's rich and poor has objectively widened. China's capitalists have gained more but workers have received less. However, China's workers have smaller demands and lower social energy, allowing China's capitalists to A more "unscrupulous" promotion of new technologies and even the use of new technologies to expand reproduction, which is a huge resistance in traditional European countries - because the use of new technologies leads to rising costs and a large number of unemployed people, which ultimately leads to opposition from labor unions and strikers. Parades and reduced profits eventually made the implementation of new technologies unsustainable. Two hundred years ago, when Marx described China in Capital, he described it like this: “When one day in the future, European capitalists and aristocrats flee because of the proletarian revolution, they will come to the far east, and then when they look up, You will be surprised to see that it clearly says: Republic of China, Equality, Liberty and Fraternity. In Marx's view, China is obviously the pinnacle of the future capitalist world. But perhaps what Marx did not expect was that today, two hundred years later, under the beacon of socialism that has been realized in Europe, the proletariat, workers and farmers are looking at such a behemoth with horror and fear: holding a Huawei BYD in his left hand Waiting for Red Capital, holding a giant revolver in his right hand, behind him are the skeletons of migrant workers from Henan, Dongguan, assembly line workers from Shenzhen, and takeaways from Shanghai who are working endlessly, walking step by step, just like in 1840 The British came to China and wanted to smash the world to pieces.
The red afterglow of socialism and communism at the end of the 20th century has faded, and the white sun of nationalism and new imperialism is about to rise. The left and even the pan-left around the world are retreating from this challenge. In this tense but uncertain 21st century, is it the victory of the proletariat, the era of new imperialism, or a new path of socialist reform? We stay tuned.

人权，即个人的基本权利。从历史的角度来看，人权的发展也历经若干阶段。因此笔者写下此文，来详细论述人权的阶段问题以及为什么说“前工业文明无人权”的观念。
我们知道，在近现代以前，人类社会的整体尚还处在愚昧和野蛮的状态。在古巴比伦的汉谟拉比法典中记载，假若理发师剃掉了奴隶的奴隶标志，那么他的双手将会被剁掉。因此，“倘人以毁人之骨，则毁其骨”“以眼还眼，以牙还牙”。而到了古罗马时代，奴隶制度进一步的发展，使得奴隶为奴隶主的取乐和服务方式更加多样。虽然奴隶有赎回自由身的能力与选择，但奴隶承担的义务却反而更加深重。于是在罗马共和国末期，奴隶起义开始变得非常频繁，虽终被镇压，但也留下了浓墨重彩的一笔。而到了十字军东征时期，由于宗教之间的敌对态势，在工业文明以前，由于生产力的落后和社会阶段的落后，个人的权利被统治集团大大的制约了。诸如在第一次十字军东征前后，就有大量的战俘和异教徒被当做奴隶贩卖乃至处死。此时，无论是中国亦或是西方世界，都处在这个对个人权利的无视与蛮荒状态中。因此，我认为在工业文明时代以前，所有带有人权问题的屠杀 镇压 种族矛盾等都是应当忽略的。
公元16世纪以后，随着新航路的开辟和古典资本主义刺激下殖民主义的扩张，对于被征服者与蛮族的人权问题也被摆上了台面。于是，西班牙就美洲被征服印第安人尤其是转变基督教信仰的印第安人是否有同等于欧洲殖民者的人权问题开始了第一次激烈辩论。及至18世纪，随着美国的建立，对于印第安人与土著权利的问题也来到台前，最终美国人给予了印第安人及弱势群体3/5的选票权利——这一变化就像是罗马共和国从有限罗马公民权到中后期对整个亚平宁半岛的公民权的覆盖，也是工业时代以前近现代以来的人权观的转变。
随着两次工业革命的产生以及社会生产力的增长，对人权的需求开始有了非常大的增长。而这一次的增长，不仅是族群与族群之间的需求，更是阶层与阶层之间的。1832年，英国允许大量工商业资本家进入上议院，将代议民主制的范围进一步扩充，开辟了人权在政治制度上的赛道。1862年，美国总统林肯签署了解放黑人的法令，美国黑人正式开始了融入美国族群，开辟了人权在族群和反对制度性 歧视的赛道。1871年，普鲁士王国通过三次王朝战争，统一了德意志帝国。时任帝国宰相的俾斯麦首次提出了社会福利的观点，并将之运用于全体德意志公民，以维护帝国的专制制度。然而马克思与恩格斯对于这种专制福利模式却是坚决反对的。无论是左派还是右派，都应具备基于制度性的基础人权保障，即：社会整体的民主与自由环境。因此可见，人权是社会性的，也是随生产力发展必然诉诸需求的，它不是神或者某个伟大人物的授予，而是公民社会下的必然结果。
自冷战以来，人类已经经历了四次工业革命的洗礼。在世界高速全球化的今天，基于工业化和生产力的增进带来的人权诉求已经来到了越来越高的水平线。在美国，由于族群多元化和英美撒昂族群在美国绝对比重的下降，文化多元的呼声也提上日程，于是最激进的多元文化需求如跨性别 lgbt black-lives-matter等在美国正如火如荼的正在发升；在伊朗，宗教保守主义和原教旨伊斯兰文化正在快速式微，对宗教警察与伊斯兰保守主义的反抗正在促使他走向更好的道路上。在两百年前，人类基于生产力的主要诉求还是解决普遍性的饥饿，在一百年前，这个诉求已经提升为保障基础生活问题，而在五十年前，是追求更高质量的生活保障，而在今天，是满足娱乐 医疗 教育 健康等一系列高层次的人权诉求。可以看到的是，当今，欧美已经实现了基于制度和经济发展的人权需求，并在适合本国国情的前提下，正快速在文化和思想上实现人权的新方向。
1980年以来，我国已经解决了普遍性的饥饿和贫困问题，并从人均GDP不及撒哈拉以南非洲一半的水平增长到罗马尼亚到匈牙利的水平，满足了绝大多数人基于经济发展的人权，但基于制度性的人权还尚处举步维艰的阶段。如果说三十五年前，我国的国民还不具备实现民主的素养与对应匹配的经济水平，今天已经来到发达国家门槛前的中国已经离之不远。那么未来我国的人权会以什么样的方向发展呢？我认为这将是“历史的拐点”，是红色贵族与威权资本主义与自由资本主义的矛盾。从世界范围来看，只有实现了广泛的民主代议制，我们才能获得基于制度性的人权保障，就如同光州事件下的韩国，如同1988年的台湾，如同罗马尼亚处决齐奥塞斯库，如同今日的孟加拉。于是有的人或许会问：五六十年前毛泽东时代的中国出现数千万人的非正常死亡与普遍性饥饿时没有人反抗与变革，是否证明中国人具有所谓奴性或者民族劣根性呢？需要知道的是，当时的中国社会生产力与经济水平是极度低下的，所以国民的认知和人权诉求水平处在非常低的起点，而今天我国国民的诉求已经来到了很高的节点。就如亚当斯密的《国富论》所言：诚然，一个英国普通公民的财富水平远不如英国国王，但他一定要比非洲酋长来的多得多。因此，我认为，实现健全的民主代议制，是我国人权的必然诉求。35年前的六四事件中，我们还没能来到这一阶段，而到今天，这也必然提上日程了。

Human rights are the basic rights of individuals. From a historical perspective, the development of human rights has also gone through several stages. Therefore, the author wrote this article to discuss in detail the stage issues of human rights and why it is said that "there are no human rights in pre-industrial civilization".
We know that before modern times, human society as a whole was still in a state of ignorance and barbarism. The Code of Hammurabi in ancient Babylon recorded that if a barber shaved off the slave's slave mark, his hands would be chopped off. Therefore, "If a man destroys another's bones, then destroy his bones" and "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth". In the ancient Roman era, the further development of the slave system made the ways in which slaves entertained and served slave owners more diverse. Although slaves had the ability and choice to redeem their freedom, the obligations they assumed became even heavier. Therefore, in the late Roman Republic, slave uprisings began to become very frequent. Although they were eventually suppressed, they also left a strong mark. By the time of the Crusades, due to the hostility between religions, before the industrial civilization, due to the backward productivity and social stage, the rights of individuals were greatly restricted by the ruling group. For example, before and after the First Crusade, a large number of prisoners of war and pagans were sold as slaves or even executed. At this time, both China and the Western world were in a state of disregard and barbarism for individual rights. Therefore, I believe that before the era of industrial civilization, all massacres, repressions, racial conflicts, etc. with human rights issues should be ignored.
After the 16th century AD, with the opening of new routes and the expansion of colonialism stimulated by classical capitalism, the human rights issues of the conquered and barbarians were also put on the table. As a result, Spain began the first heated debate on whether the conquered Indians in America, especially the Indians who converted to Christianity, had the same human rights as the European colonists. In the 18th century, with the establishment of the United States, the issue of Indian and indigenous rights also came to the fore. In the end, Americans gave Indians and vulnerable groups 3/5 of the right to vote - this change is like the Roman Republic's transition from limited Roman citizenship to the coverage of citizenship of the entire Apennine Peninsula in the middle and late stages, and it is also a change in the concept of human rights before the industrial age and in modern times.
With the emergence of the two industrial revolutions and the growth of social productivity, the demand for human rights began to grow greatly. This time, the growth is not only between ethnic groups, but also between classes. In 1832, Britain allowed a large number of industrial and commercial capitalists to enter the House of Lords, further expanding the scope of representative democracy and opening up a track for human rights in the political system. In 1862, US President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Act for Blacks, and American blacks officially began to integrate into the American ethnic group, opening up a track for human rights in ethnic groups and against institutional discrimination. In 1871, the Kingdom of Prussia unified the German Empire through three dynastic wars. Bismarck, then chancellor of the empire, first proposed the concept of social welfare and applied it to all German citizens to maintain the empire's autocratic system. However, Marx and Engels were firmly opposed to this autocratic welfare model. Whether it is the left or the right, there should be basic human rights protection based on the system, that is, the democratic and free environment of the whole society. Therefore, it can be seen that human rights are social and are bound to appeal to needs with the development of productivity. It is not granted by God or a great man, but an inevitable result of civil society.
Since the Cold War, mankind has experienced the baptism of four industrial revolutions. In today's world of rapid globalization, human rights demands based on industrialization and the increase of productivity have reached higher and higher levels. In the United States, due to ethnic diversity and the decline in the absolute proportion of the Anglo-American Saonian ethnic group in the United States, the call for cultural diversity has also been put on the agenda, so the most radical multicultural demands such as transgender lgbt black-lives-matter are in full swing in the United States; in Iran, religious conservatism and fundamentalist Islamic culture are rapidly declining, and the resistance to religious police and Islamic conservatism is pushing him to a better path. Two hundred years ago, the main demand of mankind based on productivity was to solve universal hunger. A hundred years ago, this demand had been upgraded to guarantee basic living issues. Fifty years ago, it was the pursuit of higher quality of life security. Today, it is to meet a series of high-level human rights demands such as entertainment, medical care, education, and health. It can be seen that today, Europe and the United States have realized the human rights demands based on institutional and economic development, and are rapidly realizing a new direction of human rights in culture and thought on the premise of being suitable for their national conditions.
Since 1980, my country has solved the widespread hunger and poverty problems, and has grown from a per capita GDP of less than half of that in sub-Saharan Africa to the level of Romania and Hungary, satisfying the human rights of the vast majority of people based on economic development, but the human rights based on the system are still in a difficult stage. If we say that thirty-five years ago, our people did not have the literacy and corresponding economic level to achieve democracy, today China, which has reached the threshold of developed countries, is not far away. So what direction will human rights in my country develop in the future? I think this will be a "historical turning point", a contradiction between the red aristocracy and authoritarian capitalism and free capitalism. From a global perspective, only by achieving a broad democratic representative system can we obtain institutional human rights protection, just like South Korea under the Gwangju incident, like Taiwan in 1988, like Romania's execution of Ceausescu, and like Bangladesh today. So some people may ask: Fifty or sixty years ago, when tens of millions of people died abnormally and there was widespread hunger in China during the Mao Zedong era, no one resisted or changed. Does this prove that the Chinese have the so-called slave nature or national inferiority? It is important to know that at that time, China's social productivity and economic level were extremely low, so the level of people's cognition and human rights demands was at a very low starting point, but today the demands of our people have reached a very high node. As Adam Smith said in "The Wealth of Nations": It is true that the wealth level of an ordinary British citizen is far less than that of the British king, but he must have much more than that of an African chief. Therefore, I believe that the realization of a sound democratic representative system is an inevitable demand for human rights in our country. In the June 4th Incident 35 years ago, we had not yet reached this stage, but today, this is bound to be put on the agenda.

现代民族主义的产生和发展
“分封诸侯，以建邦国”————《礼记》
封建一词，在中国古代的最早意思便是周代的分封制。唐朝有名的大文学家柳宗元，就写过一篇名为“封建论”，来对比秦代的郡县制和周代分封制的优劣。随著“社会五形态学说”的出现和扩展，“封建”一词逐渐转变为了从秦朝到清朝的两千年历史。
在彼岸的西方，罗马开始崛起，三次佈匿战争让罗马彻底消灭了迦太基的势力，马略改革使得罗马成为了人类历史上第一个以募兵制取代征兵制（培养职业军队）的国家，而后凯撒征服了高卢，他的养子屋大维统一了庞大的罗马帝国。此时，罗马帝国境内有高卢人 不列颠人 埃及人 希腊人等等各族群。为了管理这些众多不同的族群，到了罗马五贤帝时期，罗马皇帝哈德良和后来的罗马皇帝推动了万民法，并且使得罗马帝国延续了下去。
西方人则把“封建”一词翻译为“feudalism”，他意为贵族和农民之间的土地契约关係，由农民向贵族支付地租和承担劳役的生产组织——庄园制度。公元476年，最后一位罗马帝国（西罗马）皇帝被哥特人废除。日耳曼的蛮族们的入侵，在原先的西罗马帝国领土上建立了各个国家。843年8月，《凡尔登条约》的签订把法兰克王国分成东部 中部 西部三部分。卡洛林王朝统治下，法兰克福王国控制了西欧的大部分地区。随著罗马帝国的灭亡以及西欧各国的封建化，神权和封建法统逐渐的成为了西欧各国的统治基础，并伴随著黑暗漫长的中世纪延续了一千多年。随著拜占庭帝国（东罗马）的封建化和法兰克王国的分裂 奥托一世建立了神圣罗马帝国，“法理”越来越成为国家的统治基础。而法理国家的“法理”是体现在君主上的，君主受到罗马教皇的神权制约，同时又管理统治下的大封建主。1095年开始的十字军东征，狂热的基督徒战士开始试著从穆斯林手中夺取中东的控制权。由此，国王逐渐成为中央集权国家的领袖在此基础下，西欧著名的神学家阿奎那写下了《君权神授》，他认为君主的权利来自神的授意——这与同时期中国的皇权至上是如此的相似。
举例来说，近代英国是通过苏格兰 英格兰和爱尔兰几个王国合併带来的。同样的，西班牙这个国家也是卡斯蒂利亚和阿拉贡王国合併的，阿方索王国就是今天的加泰罗尼亚。在此时法理国家统治下的西欧，国家之间的领土疆域是没有确定的法律形式，因而也就使得法理国家的政治合法性完全的与君主个人以及西欧一千两百年的封建法理绑定在了一起。
在神圣罗马帝国，帝国内的公爵会先互相选举出“罗马人民的国王”，选举方有7个选帝侯，其中3个是总主教，4个是世俗贵族，然后由教宗加冕为皇帝。在不列颠半岛，1066年征服者威廉建立了诺曼底王朝，但王权的加强却引发了社会矛盾的激化。1215年约翰被迫签署《自由大宪章》，国会分成了由贵族组成的上院以及代表骑士、市民的下院，这就是议会制的雏形。1453年，奥斯曼帝国苏丹——穆罕默德二世佔领了拜占庭首都君士坦丁堡。在乌尔班大炮的轰鸣中，漫长的中世纪结束了。
随著欧洲三十年战争的爆发（这个详细我以后会再说），这场战争以波西米亚反抗哈佈斯堡家族统治的奥地利开始，使各德意志邦国的人口被消灭了约25-40%，厌倦了无休无止的战争的西欧各国签订了《威斯特伐利亚和约》，随之诞生的“主权”以“主权国家”的形式使得近现代国家的领土疆域第一次以法律的形式确定了。主权和主权国家的发明第一次开始挑战了法理国家的封建法理和君主的权威，但封建法理仍旧时刻的影响著西欧各国。由此，天主教于是，太阳王路易十四高喊“朕即是国家”，他将自己深刻的和整个法国波旁王朝绑定在了一起，成为了西欧最具有王权至上意味的国家；另一边，在神圣罗马帝国，原本只是勃兰登堡大公的普鲁士国王，他从波兰那裡得来的王位。结果因此，神圣罗马帝国内部讨论了半天，要求勃兰登堡大公只能自称“在普鲁士的国王”，而不是“普鲁士国王”。在漫长的历史岁月中，法理成为了西欧各国的统治基础。
随著法国大革命和拿破崙军队横扫了整个欧洲，拿破崙正式的以“法国皇帝”来称呼自己（在此之前，西欧的各国王都自称罗马皇帝）。法国大革命直接导致君主消失和路易十六送上了断头台，西欧各国第一次开始试著打破君主专制的枷锁。于是，君主和封建法理开始逐渐的丧失的他们原先的地位，“民族国家认同”彻底取代了法理国家成为了新的国家执政合法性的基础，这就是“民族主义”。由此，以国族为“Nation”而族群为“Ethnic”诞生了。随著民族主义在全欧洲的扩张，普鲁士开始以德意志民族的形式谋求一个德意志民族的国家。在俾斯麦的带领下，普鲁士以三次王朝战争的形式统一成为了一个强大的德意志帝国，并且把奥地利驱逐出了德意志。
但是民族主义的扩展，导致了多民族帝国的崩溃和衰亡。这是为什麽呢？因为近现代所有民族国家需要的是基于民族主义的认同和国族认同产生的。在普鲁士的第二次王朝战争中，普鲁士将奥地利哈佈斯堡王朝成功驱逐出了德意志。于是奥匈帝国建立了——以奥地利和匈牙利的二元帝国，两个国家有统一的外交和军事权，但是内政上相互独立，其他的德意志诸邦为自治状态。但是由于被统治民族无法认同主体统治民族，逐渐的使得多民族帝国在第一次世界大战后衰亡了。到了第一次世界大战，主体民族只有奥匈20%人口的德意志民族，却要面对一个奥匈的军官要会说四种不同的语言，而奥匈帝国国内有十多种语言，而在第一次世界大战结束以后，奥匈帝国也迅速的四分五裂了。而随著鄂图曼帝国内部的崩溃，凯尔末成功领导了土耳其共和国从鄂图曼帝国中独立而生，并彻底的终结了哈里发制度，土耳其成为世俗穆斯林国家的秘密也在于此——他使得土耳其转变为了近现代的民族国家认同。
随著秦帝国的建立，秦始皇建立起了一套完整的封建君主制的中国。封建时代的中国，中国皇帝认为自己统治了“全天下”而自己的国家是“天朝上国”，中国的统治者们也自认为自己统治和管理的范围是以中国和周围蛮族为基础的世界。康熙皇帝和沙俄签订《尼佈楚条约》的时候，就是以“中国”的名义而不是“大清国”。也就是说，古代中国的大一统是以自己(和周边小国)就是全世界来看待的。这就解释了古代中国为什麽长期的统一，因为中国不属于西欧类型的法理国家，而决定这个的是在于，中国的地理环境非常封闭——中国仅有12%的土地面积是平原地区，大多数的丘陵地形，和边疆封闭的环境，造就了中国封闭的环境。而由于中国中原文化的先天优势，外族统治中国以后，由于中国本身中原文明和文化的先进性所以能够同化外族。由于自己是天朝上国，中国开始了长期的朝贡体系，而这个朝贡体系下的各个组成了中国人眼中的全世界，这个思想也直到影响了今天。在1840年以前，由于中国封闭的地理和朝代的传承更替，中国绝大多数时间都是统一的。
唐代以后，中华帝国建立起了以自己为主要核心的等级制网状政治秩序体系。作为天朝上国，来册封他国从而建立朝贡关係。在这辉煌的千年历史岁月中，我们在东亚享受著万国来朝的待遇，建立了雄汉盛唐，建立了我们辉煌的华夏文明
1840年中英战争一声炮响，暴露了中国君主专制体制的无能，沉重的打开了中国的大门，天朝上国跌落为东亚病夫，揭开了三千年未有之大变局。主权国家 民族国家的概念在全世界的扩散，中国不可避免的捲入了《威斯特伐利亚和约》。洋务运动最终因顽固派的守旧而失败，戊戌变法试图改变制度，最终却被镇压。1885年，中法战争爆发，中国失去了重要的朝贡国越南（安南）并被改为法属印度支那。1895年，中日战争爆发，中国失去了最后的朝贡国朝鲜。由此，中国的朝贡体係彻底失效了。朝贡体係的失效，迫使危亡中的中国这个古老的帝国急切的需要新的法理基础，一个新的历史时期就此开始了。
1902年，梁启超在现代民族构建基础上，提出了一个著名的概念，这就是“中华民族”，以及四大文明古国的概念。他认为，只要生活在大清领土下的中国人，都是“中华民族”的一部分。1911年，孙中山辛亥革命提出了“恢复中华”，最早就是要把满清统治者赶出中国汉地然后中国的汉地十八省独立，他试图以当时汉族地区为界，建立一个汉民族国家来反抗清廷的民族压迫，而此时的中华与汉意义等同，为族群的概念。梁启超的劝阻，孙中山又改变了他的想法，提出了“五族共和”。由此，中华民族转变为表示全中国内的所有族群，成为国族概念。这就使得清帝最终和平的让出了权利，而满清的所有领土也由此通过禅让给民国的形式完成了过度。
中华民族的发明是无比伟大的，他成型发展于第二次中日战争时期，他是威斯特伐利亚和约以及民族认同体系在中国输入的结果，他将中国人以92%的汉族人和94%的无神论者聚合成一个伟大的具象化的概念，成功的避免了中国走向所有以奥斯曼土耳其 奥匈帝国 苏联 南斯拉夫为首的多民族帝国最终灭亡的命运，为中国的统一和富强奠定了基础。
为什麽苏联在戈巴契夫以后的当代迅速走向灭亡和分裂了呢？因为戈巴契夫的政治改革使得苏联原有的马列意识形态的统治基础逐渐的不复存在了。苏联人在统治这个庞大国家的时候没有引入一个苏联民族，而在法理上苏联是以加盟共和国的形式存在的。也就是说，苏联的各加盟共和国在法理上也能够独立出苏联这个整体的国家，民主化的前提就是需要引入近现代民族国家的认同。而在这个过程中，俄罗斯联邦从苏联独立而出，今天的俄罗斯也是以俄罗斯民族为近现代民族国家为认同的。所以，在斯塔夫裡阿诺斯的《全球通史》中，他将苏联的描述为一个民族的马赛克，而非美国式的民族的熔炉。
1949年以后，中共从中华民国手中夺取了政权。名义上是人民共和国，实际上却是“党天下”，有法律而无法制，有人宪法而无宪政。执政者垄断了所有的社会财富，用高压强权统治了一切，先后造成了一系列人权灾难，数千万中国人非正常死亡。即使如此，从魏京生到刘晓波，一代又一代人追求民主的道路却未曾有过停止。
1895年，随著第一次中日战争中满清的战败，台湾被割让给了日本并成为了日本的殖民地。日本人对台湾开始了长达半个世纪的殖民教育，并在二战时代给予了不少台湾人等同于日本人的自治权。在这个过程中，台湾人逐渐失去了对中国人和中华民族的认同。1947年的二二八屠杀进一步激化了这个问题，随著台湾经济的发展，台湾人开始要求民主。1979年12月的10日，以“美丽岛杂志社”成员爲核心的党外人士，组织群众进行示威游行，诉求民主与自由，这就是美丽岛事件。1984年“江南案”的发生，迫使蒋孝武作为蒋经国的次子接替蒋经国的打算破产。1995年李登辉在美国康奈尔大学发表了“中华民国在台湾”的演讲以后，台湾实质上以“台湾意识”取代了“中华民族意识”，因此台湾在民主化之馀，开始寻求以近现代民族主义为基础的国族认同。在民主和威权的较量中，民主主义最终获胜了。
国家之间的博弈往往会带来领土和主权的变更——由于一战和二战战败，德国失去了东普鲁士；由于美苏冷战苏联的失败，苏联解体而乌克兰独立于俄罗斯。当今世界，近现代民族主义和民族认同使得民族国家成为主权国家中的绝大多数。而未来会有越来越多的威权国家转型为近代民族主义为基础的民主国家，完成民主世界的统一。
在经历了一系列民族灾难后，觉醒的中国人已经意识到，民主 共和 宪政是现代国家的基础，自由不昌，则无现代文明可言。“多难兴邦，民族自强”，文明的兴衰更替，正是人类千百年历史的汇总。我也相信，中华民族最终能挺过难关，实现民族大同，实现“炎黄世胄，东亚称雄”，恢复我们1840年以前天朝上国的地位，和英美撒盎民族平起平坐，一起促进世界的进步与和谐。
The earliest meaning of the word feudal in ancient China was the enfeoffment system of the Zhou Dynasty. Liu Zongyuan, a famous writer in the Tang Dynasty, wrote an article called "On Feudalism" to compare the advantages and disadvantages of the prefecture and county system of the Qin Dynasty and the feudal system of the Zhou Dynasty. With the emergence and expansion of the "Five Forms of Society Theory", the term "feudal" gradually transformed into a two-thousand-year history from the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty.
In the west on the other side, Rome began to rise. The three Punic Wars allowed Rome to completely eliminate the power of Carthage. The Marian reforms made Rome the first country in human history to replace the conscription system (cultivating a professional army) with a recruitment system. Then Caesar conquered Gaul, and his adopted son Octavian unified the huge Roman Empire. At this time, there were Gauls, Britons, Egyptians, Greeks and other ethnic groups in the Roman Empire. In order to manage these many different ethnic groups, during the period of the Five Good Emperors of Rome, the Roman Emperor Hadrian and later Roman emperors promoted the Law of Peoples and allowed the continuation of the Roman Empire.
Westerners translate the word "feudal" as "feudalism", which means the land contract relationship between the nobility and peasants, and the production organization in which the peasants pay land rent and perform labor to the nobles - the manor system. In AD 476, the last emperor of the Roman Empire (Western Rome) was deposed by the Goths. The invasion of Germanic barbarians established various countries on the territory of the original Western Roman Empire. In August 843, the Treaty of Verdun was signed, dividing the Frankish Kingdom into three parts: eastern, central and western. Under the Carolingians, the Kingdom of Frankfurt controlled much of Western Europe. With the demise of the Roman Empire and the feudalization of Western European countries, theocracy and feudal legal system gradually became the basis of governance in Western European countries, and lasted for more than a thousand years with the dark and long Middle Ages. With the feudalization of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Rome) and the division of the Frankish Kingdom, Otto I established the Holy Roman Empire, and "jurisprudence" increasingly became the basis for the country's governance. The "legal principles" of a legal country are reflected in the monarch. The monarch is restricted by the theocratic power of the Roman Pope and at the same time manages the great feudal lords under his rule. The Crusades began in 1095, when fanatical Christian warriors began to try to wrest control of the Middle East from Muslims. As a result, the king gradually became the leader of a centralized state. On this basis, Aquinas, a famous Western European theologian, wrote "The Divine Right of Kings". He believed that the monarch's rights came from God's instructions - this was similar to the imperial power of China at the same time. Supremacy is so similar.
For example, modern Britain was brought about by the merger of several kingdoms in Scotland, England and Ireland. Similarly, the country of Spain was the merger of the Kingdom of Castile and Aragon. At this time, in Western Europe under the rule of the legal state, the territorial boundaries between countries did not have a definite legal form. Therefore, the political legitimacy of the legal state was completely bound to the individual monarch and the feudal legal principles of Western Europe for 1,200 years. together.
In the Holy Roman Empire, the dukes in the empire would first elect the "King of the Roman People" from each other. There were 7 electors, 3 of whom were archbishops, and 4 were secular nobles. The pope would then crown him as the emperor. . In the British Peninsula, William the Conqueror established the Normandy Dynasty in 1066, but the strengthening of royal power triggered intensification of social conflicts. In 1215, John was forced to sign the Magna Carta. Parliament was divided into an upper house composed of nobles and a lower house representing knights and citizens. This was the prototype of the parliamentary system. In 1453, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II captured the Byzantine capital Constantinople. With the roar of Urban's cannon, the long Middle Ages ended.
With the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in Europe (I will talk about this in detail later), this war began with Bohemia's rebellion against Austria under the rule of the Habsburg family, which wiped out about 25-25% of the population of each German state. 40%, tired of endless wars, Western European countries signed the "Peace of Westphalia", and the resulting "sovereignty" in the form of "sovereign states" made the territorial boundaries of modern countries for the first time determined in legal form. For the first time, the invention of sovereignty and sovereign states began to challenge the feudal jurisprudence of legal countries and the authority of the monarch, but feudal jurisprudence still affects Western European countries at all times. As a result, Catholicism and the Sun King Louis XIV shouted "I am the country". He profoundly bound himself to the entire French Bourbon dynasty and became the country with the most royal supremacy in Western Europe; on the other side , in the Holy Roman Empire, was originally just the King of Prussia, the Archduke of Brandenburg, who took the throne from Poland. As a result, there was a long discussion within the Holy Roman Empire, requiring the Archduke of Brandenburg to call himself "King in Prussia" instead of "King of Prussia". In the long history, legal principles have become the basis of governance in Western European countries.
As the French Revolution and Napoleon's armies swept across Europe, Napoleon officially called himself "Emperor of France" (before that, the kings of Western Europe called themselves Emperors of Rome). The French Revolution directly led to the disappearance of the monarch and the guillotine of Louis XVI. For the first time, Western European countries began to try to break the shackles of absolute monarchy. As a result, monarchy and feudal jurisprudence began to gradually lose their original status, and "nation-state identity" completely replaced the jurisprudence state and became the basis for the legitimacy of the new country's governance. This is "nationalism." From this, the nation was called "Nation" and the ethnic group was called "Ethnic". As nationalism expanded throughout Europe, Prussia began to seek a state of the German nation in the form of the German nation. Under Bismarck's leadership, Prussia unified into a powerful German Empire in the form of three dynastic wars and expelled Austria from Germany.
However, the expansion of nationalism led to the collapse and decline of multi-ethnic empires. Why is this? Because what all nation-states in modern times need is identity based on nationalism and national identity. In Prussia's Second Dynasty War, Prussia successfully expelled the Austrian Habsburgs from Germany. So the Austro-Hungarian Empire was established - a dual empire of Austria and Hungary. The two countries had unified diplomatic and military powers, but were independent of each other in internal affairs, and the other German states were autonomous. However, because the ruled nation could not identify with the dominant nation, the multi-ethnic empire gradually declined after the First World War. By World War I, the German nation, whose main ethnic group only accounted for 20% of the population of Austria-Hungary, had to face an Austro-Hungarian officer who could speak four different languages. There were more than ten languages ​​in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the end of World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Empire quickly fell apart. With the internal collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Kelmer successfully led the Turkish Republic to become independent from the Ottoman Empire and completely ended the caliphate system. This is also the secret of Turkey becoming a secular Muslim country - he Turkey transformed into a modern nation-state identity.
With the establishment of the Qin Empire, Qin Shihuang established a complete feudal monarchy in China. In the feudal era of China, the Chinese emperor believed that he ruled "the whole world" and his country was the "heavenly kingdom". China's rulers also believed that the scope of their rule and management was the world based on China and the surrounding barbarians. . When Emperor Kangxi signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Tsarist Russia, it was in the name of "China" rather than "the Qing Dynasty". In other words, the great unification of ancient China viewed itself (and the surrounding small countries) as the whole world. This explains the long-term unification of ancient China, because China does not belong to the Western European type of legal country. What determines this is that China's geographical environment is very closed - only 12% of China's land area is plain area, most of which are plain areas. The hilly terrain and closed border environment have created China's closed environment. Due to the innate advantages of China's Central Plains culture, after foreigners ruled China, China was able to assimilate foreigners because of the advanced nature of China's Central Plains civilization and culture. Because it is a celestial country, China began a long-term tribute system, and each person under this tribute system formed the whole world in the eyes of the Chinese. This idea has influenced today. Before 1840, due to China's closed geography and the succession of dynasties, China was unified most of the time.
After the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese Empire established a hierarchical network political order system with itself as the main core. As a Celestial Kingdom, you can ennoble other countries to establish tributary relations. During these glorious thousand-year history, we enjoyed the treatment of all nations in East Asia, established the great Han Dynasty and the prosperous Tang Dynasty, and established our glorious Chinese civilization.
The explosion of the Sino-British War in 1840 exposed the incompetence of China's autocratic monarchy and opened the door to China. The Great Kingdom fell into the position of the sick man of East Asia, ushering in a major change unseen in three thousand years. As the concept of a sovereign state spread throughout the world, China was inevitably involved in the Treaty of Westphalia. The Westernization Movement ultimately failed due to the conservatism of the die-hards. The Reform Movement of 1898 tried to change the system, but was eventually suppressed. In 1885, the Sino-French War broke out, and China lost its important tributary country Vietnam (Annam) and was changed to French Indochina. In 1895, the Sino-Japanese War broke out, and China lost its last tributary state, North Korea. As a result, China's tribute system completely failed. The failure of the tribute system forced the ancient empire of China in danger to urgently need a new legal basis, and a new historical period began.
In 1902, Liang Qichao proposed a famous concept based on the construction of a modern nation, which is the concept of the "Chinese nation" and the four ancient civilizations. He believed that as long as Chinese people lived under the territory of the Qing Dynasty, they were part of the "Chinese nation." In 1911, Sun Yat-sen proposed the "restoration of China" during the Revolution of 1911. The earliest goal was to expel the Manchu rulers from Han China and then make the eighteen provinces in Han China independent. He tried to establish a Han nationality based on the Han areas at that time. To resist the national oppression of the Qing court, at this time, China and Han had the same meaning and were the concepts of ethnic groups. After being dissuaded by Liang Qichao, Sun Yat-sen changed his mind and proposed the "Republic of the Five Nationalities". As a result, the Chinese nation changed to represent all ethnic groups in China and became a national concept. This allowed the Qing emperor to finally give up his rights peacefully, and all the Manchu territories were transferred to the Republic of China through abdication.
The invention of the Chinese nation is extremely great. It took shape and developed during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It was the result of the Peace of Westphalia and the national identity system imported into China. It transformed the Chinese people into 92% Han people. and 94% of atheists gathered into a great concrete concept, successfully avoiding the fate of China's eventual demise of all multi-ethnic empires headed by the Ottomans, Turkey, Austria-Hungary, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and laying the foundation for China's unity and prosperity. .
Why did the Soviet Union rapidly collapse and split in the modern era after Gorbachev? Because of Gorbachev's political reforms, the original ruling basis of the Soviet Union's Marxist-Leninist ideology gradually ceased to exist. The Soviets did not introduce a Soviet nation when they ruled this huge country, and legally the Soviet Union existed in the form of a union republic. In other words, each of the Soviet republics can legally be independent of the Soviet Union as a whole. The prerequisite for democratization is the introduction of modern nation-state identity. In this process, the Russian Federation became independent from the Soviet Union, and today's Russia also identifies with the Russian nation as a modern nation-state. Therefore, in Stavrianos's "A General History of the World", he described the Soviet Union as a mosaic of nations rather than an American-style melting pot of nations.
After 1949, the Chinese Communist Party seized power from the Republic of China. In name, it is a people's republic, but in fact it is a "party state" with laws but no rule, and a constitution but no constitutional government. The rulers have monopolized all social wealth and ruled everything with high-pressure power. They have successively caused a series of human rights disasters and caused tens of millions of Chinese people to die abnormally. Even so, from Wei Jingsheng to Liu Xiaobo, generations after generations have never stopped pursuing democracy.
In 1895, with the defeat of the Manchus in the First Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan was ceded to Japan and became a Japanese colony. The Japanese began a half-century colonial education in Taiwan, and during World War II, they granted many Taiwanese people the same autonomy as the Japanese. In this process, Taiwanese people gradually lost their identity with the Chinese and the Chinese nation. The February 28th Massacre in 1947 further intensified this problem. As Taiwan's economy developed, Taiwanese began to demand democracy. On December 10, 1979, non-party members, with members of the "Beautiful Island Magazine" as the core, organized mass demonstrations to demand democracy and freedom. This was the Beautiful Island Incident. The occurrence of the "Jiangnan Case" in 1984 forced Jiang Xiaowu's plan to succeed Chiang Ching-kuo as the second son of Chiang Ching-kuo to go bankrupt. After Lee Teng-hui delivered a speech on "The Republic of China in Taiwan" at Cornell University in the United States in 1995, Taiwan essentially replaced "Chinese national consciousness" with "Taiwan consciousness". Therefore, in addition to democratization, Taiwan began to seek to establish itself as a modern nation. national identity based on socialism. In the contest between democracy and authoritarianism, democracy ultimately won.
Games between countries often bring about changes in territory and sovereignty - due to the defeat in World War I and World War II, Germany lost East Prussia; due to the failure of the Soviet Union in the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union disintegrated and Ukraine became independent from Russia. In today's world, modern nationalism and national identity have made nation-states the vast majority of sovereign states. In the future, more and more authoritarian countries will transform into democratic countries based on modern nationalism, completing the unification of the democratic world.
After experiencing a series of national disasters, the awakened Chinese people have realized that democracy, republicanism, and constitutionalism are the foundation of a modern country. Without freedom, there is no modern civilization at all. "A country thrives through adversity and a nation becomes strong." The rise and fall of civilizations is the summary of thousands of years of human history. I also believe that the Chinese nation can eventually overcome the difficulties, achieve national unity, achieve "Yanhuang era, East Asia is the lord", restore our status as a heavenly kingdom before 1840, and be on an equal footing with the British, American, and European nations, and jointly promote the progress and development of the world. harmonious.

在当今中国互联网上，泛lgbt与跨性别者群体正在如爆炸般增长。无论是在推特中文区，还是在b站上，都能看到关于对这些人尤其是对于药娘的讨论。但是另一方面，随着这一现象的大面积泛滥，各种问题接连浮现而来。是否在主流文化圈中接纳这一类群体？是否需要在法律层面上修改对性文化的解释？这些都是不可忽略的问题，所以笔者打算写下这篇文章来对lgbt与跨性别者的困局做一些分析，并尽一些力所能及的帮助。
首先，跨性别者与泛lgbt面临的第一大困局即是多元文化和中国单一文化主体的矛盾。在古代，中国在多元性文化方面一直是有不小的渊源，美既可以描述女子，也可以描述男子（美男子），甚至以此还诞生出了所谓“龙阳之好”。战国时期的齐国，就有《邹忌讽齐王纳谏》中邹忌和城北徐公比美的故事，而到了汉朝，汉高祖刘邦的儿子汉惠帝，则是一个不折不扣的双性恋者，甚至背地里还在后宫养男宠作为宠爱的对象。到了明清时代，还有很多大尺度的言情 武侠小说，甚至诸如为躲避追杀而男扮女装，却转角遇到进京赶考的秀才而途生爱意的故事。但一直以来，这些都属于“不登大雅之堂”的东西。而到了当代，随着中华民族认同的塑造以及中国的现代化的完成，中国的单一民族文化也在不断巩固。因此，多元文化也未曾正式有过国内的土壤。故孝经有云：身体发肤，受之父母，不敢毁伤，孝之始也。
那么在未来，多元性文化是否在中国国内会随着政治文化的需求而发生改变么？放眼中国乃至整个东亚的国情而言，我觉得不会。一方面，中国的现代化是基于1902年梁启超以后中华民族的塑造而成的，而中华民族的塑造又是建立在92%以上人口为汉民族和汉文化的绝对统治地位而成。因此，中国是先天性的单一民族国家，而单一民族国家往往对于多元文化的引入又是一个相对矛盾的状态。即使是民主化和多元文化引入比较好的日本和南韩，也至今只是在社会层面上认可了lgbt和跨性别者，而不是法律意义上，只有台湾把认可lgbt写入了法律，但台湾能做到也是出于台湾本省 外省 客家 原住民等族群的多元化联系。另一方面，从世界范围来看，长期以来美国是自由主义的灯塔，而俄罗斯则是保守主义尤其是新保守主义的灯塔。随着俄乌战争的持续以及俄罗斯从世界大国位置的急剧下滑，俄罗斯从世界大国下滑为地区大国是未来的趋势，所以势必会带来意识形态影响力的衰退。因此，我认为中国作为当今以及未来保守主义的大本营，也依然会强调单一文化的塑造，无论是否中国实现了民主化，亦是如此。
其次，跨性别者与泛lgbt面临的第二大困局即是与自由派和泛左意识形态需求的冲突。从泛左的角度来说，社会主义乃至共产主义的最终目标都是将个人/劳动者从教条制约中解放出来，以达到自由王国的阶段，而文化繁荣也建立在经济生产环境的自由状态之下的。有了稳定且受法律保障的八小时工作制，所以泛左和工人阶层才能更好的和资本家与政府进行政治斗争，才能进一步推动多元文化的发展。而从激进自由主义者的角度来说，文化多元是欧美西方世界普遍采取的先进制度，并且成功的民主制度需要一个相对宽松的多元文化土壤，只有文化上的进步才能推动社会层面的进步，所以中国的“文艺复兴”更需要多元文化来做依靠。（注：笔者本人算是保守自由主义者，所以我对此并不太认同，但不代表我一定会对此持负面看法）。而我观察到的绝大多数lgbt和跨性别者却是要么坐吃山空的状态，要么总是只想着自己的一亩三更地而不是借此来在文化层面上提出反建制诉求从而争取权利，甚至出现了严重的抑郁 自闭 冷漠 魔怔发狂 负能量抱怨社会 甚至是去和一些原教旨神友和润人同流合污 寄希望于润出去一了百了的行为，更有甚者甚至还出现了卖惨骗钱和自残乃至自杀的情况。我认为这是极为不应该的，作为单一文化和建制的反对者，跨性别者和lgbt群体本应是去争取自己的权利乃至推动中国的民主和进步为要义的。至少基于希望多元性文化能够被社会接纳甚至有政治探讨的余地，我认为跨性别者和lgbt群体有义务去发声的，只有中国处在民主和宪政的大框架之下，多元性文化才有更多值得被探讨的空间，而当今在仍处在现代威权政治之下的国内，显然连这个被讨论的可能性都是没有的，就好比想要获得木材，就应该建立在有好的斧子和电锯的前提下，连好的工具都没有，又何谈木材的获得呢？倘若国内的跨性别者和lgbt群体能多一些去身体力行的争取时政方面的诉求，并以此来强调多元性文化的重要性，lgbt和跨性别者群体至少在中国互联网会有更好的名声。
最后，跨性别者与泛lgbt群体面临的第三大困局即是怎么缓和在现实生活和互联网中的矛盾。一方面，在传统的中国家庭伦理中，泛lgbt和跨性别者面临着家庭关系和性取向问题的严重冲击，尤其是跨性别者群体还需要花费不小的价格来购买雌二醇之类的药物，这样的开销对于个人家庭而言能不能承担，能不能接受的起，以及药物对身体的副作用等等，都是需要考虑的问题。而在很多中国传统家庭中，对于这种行为可以说是几乎无法接受的事情，甚至是涉及伦理道德的冲击。因此，能不能争取自己家庭的支持尤为重要。《大学》有云：古之欲明明德于天下者，先治其国；欲治其国者，先齐其家。在传统的中国人看来，只有家庭的和睦与团结才是探讨治国道义的基础。所以，我觉得如果lgbt和跨性别者群体不能争取到自己家庭支持的情况下，不如多和自己的家里人多做交流沟通，克制自己的性文化方面的诉求，而是把这些转化为对现实政治的诉求。未来等自己有成家立业和工作生活的能力，再做这方面的打算也不迟。就如西瓜与芝麻的取舍，如果只是为了多元性文化的芝麻而舍弃现实政治诉求的西瓜，那显然是极为不明智的。正因如此，泛lgbt与跨性别者在中国面临的困局愈发凸显。我也希望跨性别者与泛lgbt群体能够有更好的生活，能够被社会容纳，在中国国内把这份多元性文化的憧憬，拿去发挥自己的光与热。

On the Internet in China today, the pan lgbt and cross gender groups are growing like an explosion. Whether in the Chinese section of Twitter or on Bilibili, you can see discussions about these people, especially about Yao Niang. On the other hand, with the widespread spread of this phenomenon, various problems have emerged one after another. Is this group accepted in mainstream cultural circles? Is it necessary to modify the interpretation of sexual culture at the legal level? These are all issues that cannot be ignored, so the author intends to write this article to analyze the dilemma of LGBT and transgender people, and do their best to help.
Firstly, the first major challenge faced by transgender individuals and the general LGBTQ community is the contradiction between multiculturalism and a single cultural entity in China. In ancient times, China had a significant history of multiculturalism, where beauty could describe both women and men (beautiful men), and even gave birth to the so-called "Longyang's goodness". During the Warring States period in the state of Qi, there was a story in "Zou Ji's Critique of the Qi King's Advice" about Zou Ji's beauty comparison with Xu Gong in the north of the city. However, in the Han Dynasty, Emperor Hui of Han, the son of Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang, was a true bisexual and even secretly kept male pets in the harem as objects of affection. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, there were still many large-scale romance martial arts novels, even stories such as men disguised as women to avoid pursuit, but met a scholar heading to the capital for an exam and fell in love with him on the way. But all along, these have been things that are not considered 'elegant'. In contemporary times, with the shaping of Chinese national identity and the completion of China's modernization, the single ethnic culture of China is also constantly consolidating. Therefore, multiculturalism has never had a formal domestic soil. Therefore, the Classic of Filial Piety states: When one's body and skin are affected by their parents, they dare not harm them. This is the beginning of filial piety.
So in the future, will multiculturalism change in China with the demands of political culture? Looking at the national conditions of China and even the entire East Asia, I don't think so. On the one hand, China's modernization is based on the shaping of the Chinese nation after Liang Qichao in 1902, and the shaping of the Chinese nation is based on the absolute dominance of the Han ethnic group and Han culture with over 92% of the population. Therefore, China is a congenital mono ethnic state, and the introduction of multiculturalism in mono ethnic states is often a relatively contradictory state. Even Japan and South Korea, which have introduced democratization and multiculturalism well, have only recognized LGBT and transgender individuals at the social level, rather than in a legal sense. Only Taiwan has written the recognition of LGBT into law, but Taiwan's ability to do so is also due to the diverse connections of ethnic groups such as indigenous people from other provinces outside Taiwan. On the other hand, from a global perspective, the United States has long been a beacon of liberalism, while Russia has been a beacon of conservatism, especially neoconservatism. With the ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine and Russia's sharp decline from its position as a world power, Russia's transition from a world power to a regional power is a future trend, which will inevitably lead to a decline in ideological influence. Therefore, I believe that as the stronghold of conservatism today and in the future, China will still emphasize the shaping of a single culture, regardless of whether China has achieved democratization or not.
Secondly, the second major dilemma faced by transgender individuals and pan LGBT communities is the conflict with liberal and pan left ideological demands. From a pan leftist perspective, the ultimate goal of socialism and even communism is to liberate individuals/workers from dogmatic constraints in order to reach the stage of a free kingdom, and cultural prosperity is also established under a free state of economic production environment. With a stable and legally protected eight hour workweek, the pan leftist and working class can better engage in political struggles with capitalists and the government, and further promote the development of multiculturalism. From the perspective of radical liberals, cultural diversity is an advanced system widely adopted in Europe, America, and the Western world. Successful democratic systems require a relatively relaxed multicultural soil, and only cultural progress can promote social progress. Therefore, China's "Renaissance" relies more on multiculturalism. (Note: As a conservative liberal myself, I do not fully agree with this, but it does not necessarily mean that I will hold a negative view of it.). However, the vast majority of LGBT and transgender individuals I have observed either sit idly by or only think about their own land, rather than using it as a means to raise anti establishment demands and fight for their rights on a cultural level. They have even experienced severe depression, autism, apathy, madness, negative energy complaints about society, and even colluded with some fundamentalist friends and Run people in the hope of getting rid of it all. Some have even resorted to selling and cheating money, self harm, and even suicide. I think this is extremely unacceptable. As opponents of a single culture and system, transgender and LGBT groups should be fighting for their rights and promoting democracy and progress in China. At least based on the hope that diverse cultures can be accepted by society and even have room for political discussion, I believe that transgender and LGBT groups have an obligation to speak out. Only when China is under the framework of democracy and constitutionalism, can diverse cultures have more room for discussion. However, in today's country, which is still under modern authoritarian politics, it is obvious that there is no possibility of this being discussed. It is like obtaining wood, which should be based on the premise of having good axes and chainsaws. Without good tools, how can we talk about obtaining wood? If the transgender and transgender groups in China can practice their own demands on current politics and emphasize the importance of diversified culture, the transgender and transgender groups will have a better reputation on the Internet in China at least.
Finally, the third dilemma faced by transgender and pan lgbt groups is how to ease the contradiction in real life and the Internet. On the one hand, in traditional Chinese family ethics, pan LGBT and transgender individuals face serious impacts on family relationships and sexual orientation issues, especially the transgender community who also need to spend a considerable amount of money to purchase drugs such as estradiol. Whether such expenses can be borne by individual families, whether they can accept them, and the side effects of drugs on the body are all issues that need to be considered. In many traditional Chinese families, such behavior is almost unacceptable and even involves ethical and moral impacts. Therefore, it is particularly important to seek the support of one's own family. The Great Learning "says: In ancient times, those who wanted to be virtuous in the world should first govern their country; Those who want to govern their country must first gather their families. In the traditional Chinese view, only the harmony and unity of the family is the basis for exploring the morality of governance. So, I think if the LGBT and transgender communities cannot gain support from their families, it's better to communicate more with their families, restrain their sexual and cultural demands, and turn them into demands for real-life politics. It's not too late to make plans in the future when one has the ability to start a family, establish a career, and work life. Just like the trade-off between watermelon and sesame, it is obviously unwise to sacrifice watermelon for the sake of diverse cultural sesame and realistic political demands. Therefore, the dilemma faced by pan LGBT and transgender individuals in China has become increasingly prominent. I also hope that transgender people and the general LGBT community can have a better life, be accepted by society, and use this vision of diverse culture in China to bring out their own light and enthusiasm.